Agrometeorology in Extreme Events and Natural Disasters

This volume deals with a broad variety of extreme events that affect agriculture and presents effective risk management strategies. It explains events and their effects and presents techniques and strategies to cope with disasters such as drought, volcanic eruption, pests, etc. and minimize their impact on agricultural production. It also deals with the need to develop local agrometeorological adaptation strategies to reduce the effect of natural disasters in regions where food and fibre production is most sensitive to climate fluctuations. Providing sets of current data from the latest developments in agricultural meteorology, it addresses and audience of agrometeorologists, agricultural planners, meteorologists, disaster specialists, forest fire experts and various other professionals involved with risk management in agriculture, water and food production resources.

1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE EXTREME EVENTS IN RELATION TO AGROMETEOROLOGY                                                              
1.1  Introduction 
1.2  Classification of extreme events 
1.3  The role of meteorological data and information
1.4  Socio-economic impacts of extreme events 
1.5  Positive effect on agriculture of extreme events 
1.6  Negative effect on agriculture (Dired and indirect) of extreme events
1.7 Impacts of extreme events on rangeland
1.8  Impacts of extreme events on forestry
1.9  Impacts of extreme events on environment
1.10  Extreme events and risk management in agriculture
1.11  Early warning system for extreme events
1.12  Prevention of and preparedness for extreme events
1.13  Rehabilitation
1.14  Future thrust areas

2.  DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION
2.1  Introduction      
2.2  Concept of drought 
2.3  Drought and aridity  
2.4  Classification of drought 
2.5  Space-time characteristics of drought  
2.5.1  Spatial extent 
2.5.2  Beginning and end of drought  2.6.1  Causes of drought 
2.7  Monitoring and early warning of drought
2.8   Drought indices
2.8.1  Meteorological drought indices
2.8.2  Agricultural indices of drought 
2.8.3  Hydroiogical drought indices
2.9  Drought prediction
2.10  Impact of drought
2.10.1  Drought and agriculture 
2.10.2  Response of plants to drought condition
2.11  Socio-economic aspects of drought
2.12  Beneficial aspects of drought
2.13  Drought risk reduction strategies
2.14  Adaptions and adjustments to drought
2.15  Drought management
2.16  Drought mitigation
2.17  Drought and human health
2.18  Desertification
2.18.1  Definition of desertification
2.19  Distribution of desertification
2.20  Desertification trend
2.21  Desertification processes
2.21.1  Agrometeorological aspects in the desertification process
2.22  Causes of desertification
2.22.1  Natural factors
2.22.2  Anthropogenic factors
2.22.1.1  Land use pattern (including irrigation)
2.22.1.2  Overgrazing
2.22.1.3  Trampling
2.22.1.4  Deforestation for fuel and construction
2.22.1.5  Wild bushfire
2.22.1.6  Arable farming to marginal lands
2.22.1.7  Soil erosion, sand sheeting and dune formation
2.22.1.8  Salinization and water logging
2.22.1.9  Over exploitation of ground water
2.23  Blend of desertification and development planning
2.24  Desertification and feedback mechanism
2.25  Desertification and development
2.26  Monitoring and assessment of desertification
2.27  Strategies to combat desertification
References

3. HEAVY RAINS, FLOODS, HAILS AND SNOW AND THEIR IMPACT ON AGRICULTURE
3.1   Introduction 
3.2   Floods and their cause
3.3   Forecasting and warning of flood for safety measures
3.3.1   Flash flood forecasting 
3.4   Flood control and management  
3.5   Protection against flood 
3.6  Flood fighting
3.7   Livelihood security in flood plain
3.8   Heavy rain and flooding and their impact on agriculture
3.9   Waterlogging and its effect on plants
3.10   Symptoms of flood injury
3.11   Causes of flooding injury and its tolerance limits
3.12   Mitigation of damage on agricultural sector
3.13  Landslide
3.13.1   Control of landslides
3.14   Avalanches
3.15   Erosion process and its agricultural implications
3.15.1   Fluvial erosion
3.16   Coastal erosion and protection
3.16.1   Sea waves
3.16.2   The tides- storm surges
3.16.3   Near shore currents
3.17   Hails
3.17.1   Temporal and spatial distribution of hails 
3.17.2    Hails and crop damage 
3.17.3   Hail forecasting methods 
3.17.4   Hail prevention 
3.18  Snow and snow cover-ice and frozen ground
3.18.1   Hydrological aspects of snow and ice 
3.18.2   Thermal aspects of snow 
3.18.3   Implications for agriculture in areas subject to regular seasonal snowfall
3.18.4   Implications for agriculture in areas subject intermittent snowfall
3.18.5   Wind breaks and snow deposition 
References 

4. TROPICAL CYCLONES, STORM SURGES, THUNDERSTORMS, TORNADOES AND SQUALLS
4.1  Introduction
4.2  Geographical distribution of tropical cyclone 
4.3  Characteristics of tropical cyclones
4.4  Environmental factors associated with tropical cyclone formation
4.5  Structure of tropical cyclone
4.6  Heavy rains associated with tropical cyclone
4.7  Storm surges
4.7.1  Protection from storm surges
4.8  Monitoring and forecasting of tropical cyclone
4.9  Destruction caused by tropical storm
4.10  Agrometeorological loss associated with cyclone
4.11  Economic and social impacts of cyclone
4.12  Beneficial impact of cyclonic storm
4.13  Cyclone warning system
4.14  Cyclone disaster management and mitigation measures
4. 14.1  Prevention and Preparedness planning
4.14.2   Cyclone preparedness in agricultural system
4.14.3   Cyclone preparedness for non-agricultural sector
4.14.4   Evacuation
4.15  Mitigation measures
4.16   Community based vulnerability reduction programme
4.16.1  Community based capacity building
4.17  Thunderstorms
4.17.1  Conditions favourable for thunderstorms
4.17.2  Life cycle of thunderstorm cell
4.17.3  Vertical extent of thunderstorm
4.17.4  Beneficial effects of thunderstorms
4.17.5  Thunderstorms hazards
4.18  Squall lines
4.19  Tornedoes and water spouts
4.19.1  Size and life span of tornedo
4.19.2  Meteorological warnings for tornedoes
4.19.3  Precautions for safety
References

5. AGROMETEOROLOGY RELATED TO EXTREME TEMPERATURE INCLUDING HEAT WAVES AND FROST
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Effect of extremely high temperature (including heat waves) on plants
5.3 Heat waves and crop production
5.4 Effect of low temperature and cold spell on plants
5.4.1 Chilling injury of the plant
5.4.2 Plant freezing injury
5.5 Frost
5.5.1 Causes of frost
5.5.2 Effect of frost on plants
5.5.3 Intensity of frost injury to plants in relation to soil temperature and snow cover
5.5.4 Protection against frost damage
5.5.5 Forecast and warning of frost
5.6 Climate and animal husbandry
5.6.1 Effect on animals of extreme temperature
5.6.2 Effect of low temperature
5.6.3 Effect of high temperature
5.7 Provision of proper environmental conditions for livestocks
5.8 Effect of climatic factors particularly temperature on fisheries
References

6. WIND STORMS AND SAND STORMS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON PLANTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The physiological effects of wind on crop
6.3 Wind storm and squall
6.4 Sand storm/Dust storm and desert wind and their agricultural implication
6.5 Erosion by wind
6.6 Salt deposition
6.7 Impact of sand and dust storm on agriculture and environment
6.8 Effect of strong wind on forestry and woodlands
6.9 Measures to protect crop from wind storm and sand storm
6.10 Sand storm and dust storm warning system
References

7. WEATHER RELATED FOREST FIRE
7.1   Introduction
7.2   Basic principle of combustion
7.3   Role of weather in forest fire
7.3.1   Onset of fire danger period
7.3.2   Humidity/Dryness of vegetation
7.3.3   Post ignition influence of weather on fire behavior
7.3.3.1   Influence on low-intensity fires
7.3.3.2   Influence on high-Intensity fire
7.3.3.3   Influence of wind and slope on fire
7.3.4   Lightning or natural ignition
7.3.4.1   Lightning as fire setting agency
7.4   Man made fire
7.5   Fire danger rating system
7.6   Fire- weather forecasting services
7.6.1   Development of EWS-Fire
7.7   Fire behavior Prediction
7.8   Remote sensing application of fire monitoring and fire danger assessment
7.9   Environmental impacts of forest fire
7.10   Model used for forecasting, warning and evaluation of fires
References

8. PEST AND DISEASES OF CROP AND LIVESTOCK
8.1   Introduction 
8.2   Weather aspect of crop and pest disease 
8.2.1    Locust 
8.2.1.1   Desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) 
8.2.1.2   Migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) 
8.2.1.3   Red locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata) .
8.2.1.4    Brown locust (Locustana pardalina) 
8.2.1.5   Moroccan locust (Dochistaurus maroccanus) 
8.2.1.6   Bombay locust (Nomadacris succincta) 
8.2.1.7   Australian plague locust (Chortoicetes terminifera)
8.2.1.8   South American locust (Schistocerca cancellata)
8.2.1.9   Sahelian tree locust (Anacridium melanorhodon)               
8.2.1.10   Senegalese grasshoper (Oedaleus senegalensis)
8.2.2   Meteorological parameters for locust control
8.3   Insect pest and climatic factors 
8.3.1    European corn borer 
8.3.2  Pink boll worm
8.3.3   Lobesia botrana (Vine pests) 
8.4   Insect pests with long range migration 
8.4.1   African armyworm ( spodoptera, exempta) 
8.4.2   Oriental armyworm ( mythimna reparata)
8.5   Animal disease
8.5.1    Foot-and-mouth disease virus
8.5.2     Lumpy skin disease (LSD)
8.6      Livestock protection measure and forecasting animal disease
8.7        Virus diseases of plants
8.7.1        Tobacco mosaic virus
8.7.2      Ratoon stunting disease of sugarcane
8.8         Fungi
8.8.1    Powdery mildew of cereals
8.8.2        Loose smut of wheat
8.9         Plant disease caused by bacteria
8.9.1       Citrus canker
8.9.2      Angular leaf spot or black arm of cotton
8.10          Rodent
8.11          Crop disease forecast and crop protection measures
8.11.1      Production of warnings and information
8.11.2      Methods of dissemination
8.12          Mathematical models for control of pests and diseases and integrated pest management
References

9. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
9.1  Introduction 
9.2  Earthquake 
9.3  Causes of earthquakes 
9.4  Effect of earthquake on surface water 
9.4.1  Oscillations in wells 
9.4.2  Earthquake fountains 
9.4.3  Seiches 
9.5  Tsunami
9.5.1  Tsunami disaster of December’26, 2004
9.5.1.1  Impact of Tsunami’ 2004 
9.5.1.2  Impact of Isunami on soil and water
9.5.1.3  Tsunami management in India
9.6  Secondary effects of the earthquake
9.6.1  Landslides
9.7  Nature of earthquake damage
9.8  Socio-economic aspects of earthquake hazard
9.9  Role of public during the earthquake
9.10  Role of public after the earthquake
9.11  Volcanoes
9.11.1  Lava flows and ash clouds
9.11.2  Volcanic energy
9.11.3  The water –magma bomb
9.12  Effects of volcanic eruptions
9.12.1  Dust in the atmosphere
9.12.2  Volcanic mudslides
9.12.3  Death and destruction
9.12.4  Volcanic products as fertilizers Harnessing the earth’s energy
9.13  Harnessing the earth’s energy
9.14  Prediction of volcanic eruptions
References

10. AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS IN RELATION TO SOIL, WATER AND AIR POLLUTION
10.1   Introduction
10.2  Fertilizers
10.3  Pesticides
10.4  Insecticides
10.5  Fungicides
10.6  Herbicides
10.7  Rodenticides
10.8  Biological control of pests
10.9  Water pollution from agricultural chemicals
10.11  Water pollution and livestock farming
10.12  Water pollution from soil erosion
10.13  Factors affecting air pollution
10.14  Sprays, Dusts, and other agricultural chemicals affecting agriculture
10.15  Aerosols and smog affecting plants
10.16  Gaseous contaminants affecting vegetation
10.16.1  Sulphur compounds 
10.16.2  Halogen compounds 
10.16.3  Nitrogen compounds 
10.16.4  Other gases and materials 
10.17  Effects of air pollution on vegetation
10.17.1  Pollutant stress factors affecting plant physiology 
10.17.2  Pollutant induced foliar markings 
10.18  Effects of air pollution on a livestock 
10.19  Acid rain and vegetation 
10.19.1  Effect of acidification on vegetation 
10.19.2  H2SO4 aerosols injury to vegetation 
10.19.3  Deposition to the plant surface 
10.19.4  Direct chemical effect of acid precipitation on leaf tissues
10.19.5  Indirect effect on leaf surface microflora 
10.19.6  Polluted rain and plant growth 
10.20  Acid rain and its effect on trees 
10.21  Acidity of rain and aquatic system 
10.22  Pollutants and soil 
10.22.1  Effects of acid precipitation on the soil 
 
11.         IRRIGATION SCHEDULING
11.1  Introduction 
11.2   Component of irrigation scheduling 
11.2.1   Water application depth 
11.2.2   Water application duration 
11.2.3   Water application timing and irrigation interval 
11.2.4   Net irrigation requirements 
11.2.5   Leaching requirement 
11.3  Irrigation scheduling techniques
11.3.1   Plant observations 
11.3.2   Soil moisture meters 
11.3.3   Cumulative pan evaporation 
11.3.4   Soil water budget 
11.4   The soil water balance method 
11.4.1   Simple scheduling method 
11.4.2   Rapid scheduling method 
11.4.3   Graphical scheduling method 
11.4.4   Real time scheduling 
11.5   Irrigation efficiencies 
11.6  Gross irrigation requirements 
References 

12. EXTREME CLIMATE EVENTS IN RELATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Extreme climate events and climate change
12.2.1 High intensity rainfall and floods
12.2.2 Drought
12.2.3 Tropical stroms, strong winds and tornadoes
12.2.4 Extreme temperatures including heat waves and cold waves
12.2.5 Wildfires and bushfires
12.3 Vulnerable regions and extreme events in relation to    climate change
12.3.1. Asia
12.3.2 South west pacific
12.3.3 Africa
12.3.4 Latin America
12.3.5 Europe
12.3.6 North America
12.4 Projections of disaster-related effects of climate change
12.5 Adaptation and disaster risk reduction by sectors

Dr. H.P. Das has more than 30 years of experience in different disciplines of Agricultural Meteorology and interrelated topics like the effect of climate change on agriculture, natural disaster reduction and mitigation of extreme events in agriculture. His many research papers have also dealt with the application of climatological resources for the development of agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions. He has written about 150 research papers, the majority of which has been published in reputed national and international journals. He is also associated with many Agricultural meteorology programmes of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) as a member/chairman/leader of many expert teams of Commission for Agricultural Meteorology (CAgM).